Unit 1
Vocabulary:
Derivational morphemes: are affixes (prefixes or suffixes)
that are added to words to form new words.
Inflectional morphemes: provide grammatical information
about gender, number, person, case, degree, and verb form.
Present participles: end in -ing and form verbs when used
with carious forms of be. They may also function as adjectives.
Part participles: usually end in -ed. They form verbs when
they are used with various forms of have. They may also function as adjectives.
Syntax: refers to the way words are organized in sentences
to create meaning.
Determiners: precede nouns and add meaning in some way.
Modal verbs: convey important nuances of meaning, such as
permission or prohibition, intent, obligation, ability or possibility, probability,
and certainty.
Phrasal verbs: are verbs that combine a verb and an adverb
or a preposition. Together, the two - and sometimes more - words form a verb
that means something different from the separate meaning of the individual
words.
Infinitive: is the base form of a verb and is often combined
with to to form the to-infinitive.
Embedding: refers to the inclusion of a linguistic unit in
another linguistic unit. This may involve separating the main verb from its
subject by adding one or more phrases.
Subordination: refers to the joining of a subordinate clause
to a clause of higher value often by using connectors.
Conditional sentences: express a relationship in which one
situation depends on another. Often introduced by if statements, they express
three kinds of condition: real or possible conditions, hypothetical conditions,
and impossible or unrealized conditions.
Item-learning: the memorisation of individual items such as
words and phrases.
The sentence-machine argument: The number of possible new
sentences is constrained only by the vocabulary at the learner's command and
his or her creativity. Grammar is a kind od 'sentence-making machine'. It
follows that the teaching of grammar offers the learner the means for
potentially limitless linguistic creativity.
The fine-tuning argument: The teaching of grammar, it is
argued, serves as a corrective against ambiguity.
The fossilisation argument: It is possible for highly
motivated learners with a particular aptitude for languages to achieve amazing
levels of proficiency without any formal study. But more often 'pick it up as
you go along' learners reach a language plateau beyond which it is very
difficult to progress. To put it technically, their linguistic competence
fossilises.
The advance-organiser argument: Grammar instruction might
also have a delayed effect. Noticing is a prerequisite for acquisition.
The discrete item argument: A discrete item is any unit of
the grammar system that is sufficiently narrowly defined to form the focus of a
lesson or an exercise.
The rule-of-law argument: A transmission view sees the role
of education as the transfer of a body of knowledge from those that have the
knowledge to those that do not.
The learner expectations argument (1): The expectations that
may derive from previous classroom experience of language learning. They may
also derive from experience of classrooms in general where teaching is of the
transmission kind. Their expectations that teaching will be grammar-focused may
stem from frustration experienced at trying to pick up a second language in a
non-classroom setting.
Experiential learning: Learning-by-doing.
Communicative Approach: that grammatical knowledge is merely
one component of what they call communicative competence.
Communicative competence: involves knowing how to use the
grammar and vocabulary of the language to achieve communicative goals, and
knowing how to do this in a socially appropriate way.
The acquisition argument: occurs when the learner is exposed
to the right input in a stress-free environment so that innate learning
capacities are triggered. (According to the linguist Stephen Krashen.)
The natural order argument: That humans are 'hard-wired to
learn languages, that there are universal principles of grammar that we are
born with.
Universal grammar: helps explain similarities in the
developmental order in first language acquisition as well as in second language
acquisition.
The learner expectations argument (2): the expectations of
students that may have already had years of grammar study at school and are
urgently in need of a chance to put this knowledge to work.
Unit 1 References:
Coelho, E. (2004). Adding
English: A guide to teaching in multilingual classrooms. Pippin Publishing
Co., Ontario, Canada.
Thornbury, S. (1999). How
to teach grammar. Essex, UK: Pearson Education Limited.
Unit 2 Vocabulary:
Grammar-Translation: follow a
grammar syllabus and lessons typically begin with an explicit statement of the
rule, followed by exercises involving translation into and out of the mother
tongue.
Direct Method: prioritised oral
skills, and, while following a syllabus of grammar structures, rejected
explicit grammar teaching. The learners, it was supposed, picked up the grammar
in much the same way as children pick up the grammar of their mother tongue,
simply by being immersed in language.
Andiolingualism: considered
language as simply a form of behaviour, to be learned through the formation of
correct habits. Habit formation was a process in which the application of rules
played no part. The Audiolingual syllabus consisted of a graded list of
sentence patterns, which, although not necessarily labelled as such, were
grammatical in origin.
Natural Approach: does away with
both a grammar syllabus and explicit rule-giving. Instead, learners are exposed
to large doses of comprehensible input. Innate processes convert this input
into output, in time. It attempts to replicate the conditions of first language
acquisition.
Communicative Language Teaching:
the belief that communicative competence consists of more than simply the knowledge
of the rules of grammar. CLT, in its shallow-end version at least, did not
reject grammar teaching out of hand. Deep-end CLT, on the other hand, rejected
both grammar-based syllabi and grammar instruction.
Deductive approach: the rules are
simply presented to the learner, who then goes on to apply them through the
study and manipulation of examples.
Inductive approach: require the
learners first to study examples and work the rules out for themselves.
Overt grammar teaching: grammar
teaching means teaching to a grammar syllabus and explicitly presenting the
rules of grammar, using grammar terminology.
The E-Factor: Efficiency =
economy, ease, and efficacy: it would seem imperative that whatever grammar
teaching is done is done as efficiently as possible. It has been shown that
economy is a key factor in the training of technical skills, a little prior
teaching seems to be more effective than a lot. The more the instructor piles
on instructions, the more confused the trainee is likely to become. The ease
factor is the easier an activity is to set up, the better it is. Efficacy is
the ability to produce a desired or intended result, so if teachers can't
directly cause learning, they can at least provide the optimal conditions for
it.
The A-Factor: Appropriacy: Any
classroom activity must be evaluated not only according to criteria of efficacy,
but also appropriacy. Factors to consider when determining appropriacy include:
the age of the learners
their level
the size of the group
the constitution of the group,
e.g. monolingual or multilingual
what their needs are, e.g. to
pass a public examination
the learners' interests
the available materials and
resources
the learners' previous learning
experience and chance present expectations
any cultural factors that might
affect attitudes, e.g. their perception of the role and status of the teacher
the educational context, e.g.
private school or state school, at home or abroad.
Leaner-centredness: giving
learners more responsibility and involvement in the learning process. This is
often achieved through discovery learning activities and through group work.
Process and product: Those who
advocate a process approach to writing, however, pay attention to the various
stages that any piece of writing goes through. By spending time with learners
on pre-writing phases, editing, redrafting, and finally 'publishing' their work,
a process approach aims to get to the heart of the various skills that should
be employed when writing.
Writing and genre: In a genre
approach to writing students study texts in the genre they are going to be
writing before they embark on their writing.
Creative writing: Creative
writing is a journey of self-discovery, and self-discovery promotes effective
learning. When teachers set up imaginative writing tasks so that their students
are thoroughly engaged, those students frequently strive larder than usual to
produce a greater variety of correct and appropriate language than they might
for more routine assignments.
Writing as a cooperative
activity: works well with both process and genre-based approaches. Writing in
groups, whether as part of a long process or as part of a short game-like
communicative activity, can be greatly motivating for students, including as it
does, not only writing, but research, discussion, peer evaluation and group
pride in a group accomplishment.
The roles of the teacher:
Motivator: one of our principal
roles in writing tasks will be to motivate the students, creating the right
conditions for the generation of ideas, persuading them of the usefulness of
the activity, and encouraging them to make as much effort as possible for
maximum benefit.
Resource: especially during more
extended writing tasks, we should be ready to supply information and language
where necessary. We need to tell students that we are available and be prepared
to look at their work as it progresses, offering advice and suggestions in a
constructive and tactful way.
Feedback provider: giving
feedback on writing tasks demands special care. Teachers should respond
positively and encouragingly to the content of what the students have written.
When offering correction teachers should choose what and how much to focus on
based on what students need at this particular stage of their studies, and on
the tasks they have undertaken.
Differences between speech and
writing:
S1 Speech is time-bound, dynamic,
transient. It is part of an interaction in which both participants are usually
present, and the speaker has a particular addressee (or several addressees) in
mind.
W1 Writing is space-bound,
static, permanent. It is often the result of a situation in which the writer is
usually distant from the reader, and often does not know who the reader is
going to be.
S2 The spontaneity and speed of
most speech exchanges make it difficult to engage in complex advance planning.
The pressure to think while talking promotes looser construction, repetition,
rephrasing, and comment clauses ('you know', 'mind you', 'as it were').
Intonation and pause divide long utterances into manageable chunks, but
sentence boundaries are often unclear.
W2 Writing allows repeated
reading and close analysis, and promotes the development of careful organisation
and compact expression, with often intricate sentence structure. Units of
discourse (sentences, paragraphs) are usually easy to identify through
punctuation and layout.
S3 Because participants are
typically in face-to-face interaction, they can rely on such extralinguistic
clues as facial expression and gesture to aid meaning (feedback). The lexicon
of speech is often characteristically vague, using words which refer directly
to the situation (deictic expression, such as 'that one', 'in here', 'right
now').
W3 Lack of visual contact means
that participants cannot rely on context to make their meaning clear; nor is
there any immediate feedback. Most writing therefore avoids the use of deictic
expressions, which are likely to be ambiguous. Writers must also anticipate the
effects of the time-lag between production and reception, and the problems
posed by having their language read and interpreted by many recipients in
diverse settings.
S4 Unique features of speech
include most of the prosody. The many nuances of intonation, loudness, tempo,
rhythm, and tones of voice cannot be written down with much efficiency.
W4 Unique features of writing
include pages, lines, capitalisation, spatial organisation and several aspects
of punctuation. Only a few conventions relate to prosody, such as question
marks and underlying for emphasis. Several written genres (e.g. timetables,
graphs, complex formulae) cannot be read aloud efficiently, but have to be
assimilated visually.
S5 Many words and constructions
are characteristic of (especially informal) speech. Lengthy coordinate
sentences are normal, and are often of considerable complexity. Nonsense vocabulary
is not usually written, and may have no standard spelling ('whatchamacallit'). Obscenity
may be replaced by graphic euphemism (f *** ). Slang and grammatical
informality, such as contracted forms (isn't, he's) may be frowned upon.
W5 Some words and constructions
are characteristic of writing, such as multiple instances of subordination in
the same sentence, elaborately balanced syntactic patterns, and the long (often
multi-page) sentences found in some legal documents. Certain items of
vocabulary are never spoken, such as the longer names of chemical compounds.
S6 Speech is very suited to
social or 'phatic' functions, such as passing the time of day, or any situation
where casual and unplanned discourse is desirable. It is also good at
expressing social relationships, and personal opinions and attitudes, due to
the vast range of nuances which can be expressed by the prosody and
accompanying non-verbal features.
W6 Writing is very suited to the
recording of facts and the communication of ideas, and to tasks of memory and
learning. Written records are easier to keep and scan; tables demonstrate relationships
between things; notes and lists provide mnemonics; and text can be read at speeds
which suit a person's ability to learn.
S7 There is an opportunity to
rethink an utterance while it is in progress (starting again, adding a
qualification). However, errors, once spoken, cannot be with drawn; the speaker
must live with the consequences, interruptions and overlapping speech are
normal and highly audible.
W7 Errors and other perceived
inadequacies in our writing can be eliminated in later drafts without the
reader ever knowing they were there. Interruptions, if they have occurred while
writing, are also invisible in the final product.
Unit 2 References
Crystal, D. (2005). Speaking
and Writing. Toronto, ON: Pearson, Longman.
Harmer, J. (2004). The
practice of English language teaching. Essex, UK: Pearson Education
Limited.
Thornbury, S. (1999). How
to teach grammar. Essex, UK: Pearson Education Limited.
Unit 3 Vocabulary:
L1 interference: students who
learn English as a second language already have a deep knowledge of at last one
other language, and where L1 and English come into contact with each other
there are often confusions which provoke errors in a learner's use of English.
Developmental errors: for a long
time now researchers in child language development have been aware of the phenomenon
of 'over-generalisation'. What seems to be happening is that the child starts
to 'over-generalise' a new rule that has been (subconsciously) learnt, and as a
result even makes mistakes with things that he or she knew before. Later,
however, it all gets sorted out, as the child begins to have a more
sophisticated understanding. Foreign language students make the same kind of
'developmental' errors as well. Errors of this kind are part of a natural acquisition
process. When second language learners make errors, they are demonstrating part
of the natural process of language learning.
Interlanguage: is the version of
the language which a learner has at any one stage of development, and which is
continually reshaped as he or she aims towards full mastery.
Coding: frequently used symbols
of this kind refer to issues such as word order, spelling, or verb tense.
Focusing: a way of avoiding the
over-correcting of scripts, which also has the advantage of helping students to
concentrate on particular features of written English.
Unit 3 References:
Harmer, J. (2004). The
practice of English language teaching. Essex, UK: Pearson Education
Limited.
Unit 4 Vocabulary:
Activities: when planning, it is
vital to consider what students will be doing in the classroom; we have to
consider the way they will be grouped, whether they are to move around the class,
whether they will work quietly side-by-side researching on the Internet or
whether they will be involved in a boisterous group-writing activity. The best
lessons offer a variety of activities within a class period.
Skills: we need to make a
decision about which language skills we wish our students to develop. This
choice is sometimes determined by the syllabus or coursebook. However, we still
need to plan exactly how students are going to work with the skill and what
sub-skills we wish to practice.
Language: we need to decide what
language to introduce and have the students learn, practice, research or use.
One of the dangers of planning is that where language is the main focus it it
the first and only planning decision that teachers make.
Content: lesson planners have to
select content which has a good chance of provoking interest and involvement.
Since they know their students personally, they are well placed to select
appropriate content.
Thematic strands: one way to
approach a sequence of lessons is to focus on different content in each
individual lesson. This will certainly provide variety. It might be better,
however, for themes to carry over for more than one lesson, or at least
reappear, so that students perceive some coherent topic strands as the course
progresses.
Language planning: when we plan
language input over a sequence of lessons, we want to propose a ensible
progression of syllabus elements such as grammar, lexis, and functions. We also
want to build in sufficient opportunities for recycling or remembering
language, and for using language in productive skill work.
Activity balance: the balance of
activities over a sequence of lessons is one of the features which will
determine the overall level of student involvement in the course. If we get it
right, it will also provide the widest range of experience to meet the
different learning styles of the students in the class.
Action and reaction
Magic moments: some of the most affecting moments in
language lessons happen when a conversation develops unexpectedly, or when a
topic produces a level of interest in our students which we had not predicted.
The occurrence of such magic moments helps to provide and sustain a group's
motivation. We have to recognise them when they come along and then take a
judgement about whether to allow them to develop, rather than denying them life
because they do not fit into out plan.
Sensible diversion: another reason
for diversion from our original plan is when something happens which we simply
cannot ignore, whether this is a surprising student reaction to a reading text,
or the sudden announcement that someone is getting married! In the case of
opportunistic teaching, we take the opportunity to teach language that has
suddenly come up. Similarly, something might occur to us in terms of topic or
in terms of a language connection which we suddenly want to develop on the
spot.
Unforeseen problems: It is
possible to anticipate potential problems in the class and to plan strategies
to deal with them. But however well we do this, things will still happen that
surprise us, and which, therefore, cause us to move away from our plan, whether
this is a temporary or permanent state of affairs.
Unit 4 References:
Harmer, J. (2001). The
practice of teaching English. Essex, UK: Pearson Education Limited.
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